Your Company Fleet Can Now Power the Grid and Earn Money: The Danish V2G Revolution

How Vehicle to Grid Technology Transforms Electric Fleets from Cost Centers into Revenue Generators

A comprehensive guide for Danish business owners and decision makers ready to unlock the hidden potential of their electric vehicle investments

The parking lot at Frederiksberg Forsyning, a municipal utility company in the heart of Copenhagen, might look unremarkable at first glance. Ten electric vehicles sit quietly connected to charging stations, their drivers gone for the day. But beneath this ordinary scene, something extraordinary is happening: these vehicles are working, earning money, and supporting the entire Danish electricity grid.

The parking lot at Frederiksberg Forsyning, where V2G technology is in operation.

Welcome to the world of Vehicle to Grid, or V2G, technology, a revolution that is transforming how Danish businesses think about their electric vehicle fleets. No longer are EVs simply a transportation expense. They have become mobile power plants, capable of generating revenue while simultaneously supporting Denmark's ambitious green transition.

For Danish business owners and decision makers who have already invested in electric vehicles, or who are contemplating the transition, V2G represents perhaps the most compelling opportunity to emerge from the intersection of transportation and energy technology in decades. This is not theoretical future technology sitting in laboratories. It is operational today in Denmark, generating real returns for forward thinking companies.

This article will explore in depth the transformative potential of V2G for Danish businesses, examining the economic opportunities, the practical implementation challenges and solutions, the role your company can play in Denmark's energy transition, and what the future holds for this revolutionary technology.

The Executive Summary: What Every Danish Business Leader Needs to Know

Before diving into the details, here are the key takeaways that every Danish business leader should understand about V2G:

The technology is proven. Denmark hosts Europe's longest running commercial V2G installation, operating continuously since 2016 at Frederiksberg Forsyning. This is not experimental technology; it is operational infrastructure generating real value.

The economics are compelling. Documented revenue figures from Danish V2G operations range from $400 to $600 per kilowatt year. For a typical commercial fleet of 20 vehicles, this could translate to meaningful annual returns that significantly offset operating costs.

Denmark's energy system creates unique advantages. With over 80% renewable electricity and regular negative price hours, the Danish market offers exceptional conditions for V2G profitability. The price spreads that drive V2G economics are larger in Denmark than in most other markets.

The vehicle landscape is rapidly expanding. Major manufacturers including Volkswagen, BMW, Volvo, Renault, and Mercedes Benz are launching or have announced V2G capable models for the European market, dramatically expanding options for fleet operators.

Regulatory support is building. Energinet has updated grid codes specifically to accommodate V2G, and aggregators have established proven pathways for market participation that simplify the process for fleet operators.

Early movers will capture the greatest benefits. As V2G adoption scales, the economic returns per vehicle may moderate. Businesses that engage now will benefit from higher per vehicle returns and will develop operational expertise that provides competitive advantages.

The remainder of this article provides the comprehensive background and practical guidance needed to evaluate and implement V2G for your organization.

Part One: Understanding the V2G Opportunity, Why Your Fleet Is More Valuable Than You Think

What Exactly Is Vehicle to Grid Technology?

At its core, V2G is beautifully simple in concept. Electric vehicles contain substantial battery packs, typically ranging from 50 to 100 kilowatt hours in modern models. Most of these vehicles spend approximately 95% of their time parked, with the average car used for only 2 to 3 hours daily. V2G technology enables these batteries to do more than simply receive electricity; they can send electricity back to the grid when it is needed.

The technical implementation involves bidirectional chargers, which can both charge the vehicle battery and draw electricity from it, smart software that manages when to charge and discharge based on grid needs and electricity prices, an aggregator that pools multiple vehicles together into a "virtual power plant" and interfaces with the grid operator, and communication systems that coordinate between vehicles, chargers, and the electricity market.

The Danish grid operator, Energinet, has been working with V2G technology for nearly a decade, making Denmark one of the world's leading markets for this innovation. The company Nuvve has operated continuously in Denmark since 2016, building a proven track record of reliable V2G services and demonstrating that this technology works in real world conditions.

The Danish Energy Context: Why V2G Matters Here More Than Almost Anywhere Else

Denmark occupies a unique position in the global energy landscape that makes V2G particularly valuable. According to the International Energy Agency, Denmark has the highest share of wind electricity among all IEA countries, with wind, bioenergy, and solar photovoltaic together making up over 80% of the electricity mix.

The Danish parliament has set an ambitious goal: the electricity system must be completely independent of fossil fuels by 2030. Today, approximately 50% of electricity in Denmark comes from wind and solar power, and this share continues to grow rapidly. The country plans to have 60% of its energy generated by wind power by 2030, with solar capacity expanding from 4 gigawatts to 20 gigawatts by the same year.

This reliance on renewable energy creates a fundamental challenge: variability. The wind does not always blow, and the sun does not always shine. When renewable generation is high and demand is low, electricity prices can drop dramatically, even going negative. In 2025, Denmark recorded a record breaking 650 hours of negative electricity prices, matching the total for all of 2024, reached only eight months into the year.

Conversely, when renewable generation drops but demand remains high, prices spike. According to recent analysis from Gridio, the first quarter of 2025 saw wholesale electricity prices in eastern Denmark climb from €71 to €83 per megawatt hour, a 38% increase from the same period in 2024.

This price volatility creates the economic foundation for V2G. If your vehicles can charge when electricity is cheap or even free, and discharge when prices are high, the spread between these prices generates revenue. Additionally, the grid operator needs services to maintain frequency stability, and V2G enabled vehicles can provide these services for additional payments.

The Economic Case: Real Numbers from Real Operations

The economic potential of V2G is not speculation; it is demonstrated by years of operational data. Nuvve, which operates the longest running commercial V2G installation in Europe at Frederiksberg Forsyning, reports generating revenues of $400 to $600 per kilowatt year on smaller scale projects in the Danish market.

To put this in concrete terms: a typical commercial electric vehicle with a bidirectional charging capacity of 10 kilowatts could potentially generate $4,000 to $6,000 annually in grid services revenue. A fleet of 10 such vehicles might yield $40,000 to $60,000 per year, significantly offsetting operating costs or even generating net positive returns.

The Frederiksberg Forsyning case study is particularly instructive. This municipal utility operates 10 electric vehicles equipped for bidirectional charging. Under their arrangement with Nuvve, the utility receives free electricity for their vehicle fleet in exchange for Nuvve keeping the revenue from electricity trades. For a utility company focused on its core business of water and gas services, this model proves commercially viable and practically effortless.

"The fact that the cars are not sitting around idle when we go home, but the opportunity to give something back to society, to the grid, we really liked that idea," explains Kristian Beyer, head of communications at Frederiksberg Forsyning, in an interview documented by the North Sea Region Programme.

Understanding the Revenue Streams

V2G creates value through multiple channels, and understanding these helps businesses optimize their potential returns.

Frequency Regulation Services

The electricity grid must maintain a precise frequency of 50 hertz. When supply and demand are imbalanced, the frequency drifts. Traditionally, large power plants provided services to correct these imbalances, but V2G enabled vehicles can respond faster and more precisely.

Energinet, the Danish transmission system operator, pays for these frequency regulation services. Vehicles connected to qualified aggregators can participate in these markets, receiving payments for having capacity available, even if that capacity is rarely actually called upon. The Parker Project, a Danish research initiative, demonstrated that pools of EVs operating in aggregated mode can comprehensively support the grid with fast frequency regulation.

The revenue from frequency regulation comes in two forms. Capacity payments compensate providers simply for being available and ready to respond. These payments flow regardless of whether the provider is actually called upon to deliver energy. Energy payments compensate for actual energy delivered when the service is activated. For V2G participants, the capacity payments often represent the majority of revenue because the actual activation of reserves is relatively infrequent.

Energy Arbitrage

This is the simplest concept: buy low, sell high. When electricity prices are low or negative, charge your vehicles. When prices spike, discharge back to the grid. The Danish market's exceptional price volatility, with spreads of 2 to 3 Danish kroner per kilowatt hour within single days, creates substantial arbitrage opportunities.

According to Green Power Denmark, households can save up to 20% on their electricity bills by adjusting usage to low price hours. For businesses operating fleets, the savings potential is proportionally larger, and V2G adds the ability to actively sell back during high price periods.

The Danish market structure is particularly favorable for arbitrage strategies. The day ahead market establishes prices for each hour of the following day, providing visibility that allows sophisticated optimization of charging and discharging schedules. The intraday market allows adjustments closer to real time as conditions change. Smart aggregator platforms use these market signals to maximize value from vehicle batteries.

Demand Response Programs

Utilities increasingly offer demand response programs that compensate participants for reducing or shifting their electricity consumption during peak periods. V2G enabled fleets can participate in these programs, receiving payments for reducing charging or for discharging stored energy during grid stress events.

Denmark's increasing reliance on renewable energy makes demand response increasingly valuable. When unexpected drops in wind or solar generation coincide with high demand, the grid needs rapid response to maintain stability. Aggregated vehicle batteries can provide this response faster and more precisely than traditional generation assets.

Peak Shaving for Your Own Facility

Beyond grid services, V2G can reduce your facility's own peak demand charges. Many commercial electricity tariffs include demand charges based on peak consumption. By discharging vehicle batteries during your facility's peak periods, you reduce the load drawn from the grid and thus the demand charges on your bill.

This application does not require any interaction with grid markets or aggregators. It simply involves using your vehicle batteries as on site storage to smooth your facility's load profile. The economics depend on your specific tariff structure and consumption patterns, but for facilities with significant demand charges, the savings can be substantial.

Backup Power and Resilience

While not a direct revenue stream, V2G provides substantial value through energy resilience. In a Vattenfall pilot project in Sweden, Klas Boman, founder of Energy Bank, notes: "With the capacity we have in the cars in this association, we could live for more than a day without having to draw on anything else. In these times, that is something very special."

For Danish businesses with critical operations, this resilience value may exceed the direct revenue benefits. Consider the cost of even a few hours of downtime for your operations. If vehicle batteries can keep critical systems running during grid outages, the avoided losses may far exceed the direct revenue from V2G services.

Detailed Case Study: Frederiksberg Forsyning

The Frederiksberg Forsyning installation deserves deeper examination as the benchmark for commercial V2G in Denmark and indeed Europe.

The setup began in 2016 when the utility's board directed management to begin electrifying the fleet. What might have been a straightforward vehicle procurement became something much more interesting when Nissan invited the utility to participate in a research project on V2G led by the Danish Technical University.

Rather than purchasing a single demonstration vehicle, the utility committed to 10 vehicles, representing one fifth of their total fleet, all equipped for bidirectional charging. The utility paid for the vehicles but received 10 charging stations free of charge through the research project. This arrangement reduced the barrier to entry while providing researchers with a meaningful scale deployment for study.

When the research project concluded, the relationship evolved into a commercial partnership with Nuvve, one of the project participants. Under the current arrangement, Frederiksberg Forsyning receives free electricity for their vehicle fleet, while Nuvve retains the revenue from electricity trading and grid services provision.

This arrangement illustrates one model for V2G participation. The utility extracts value through eliminated electricity costs rather than direct revenue, while the aggregator bears the complexity and risk of market participation. For an organization focused on water and gas services rather than energy trading, this division of responsibilities makes practical sense.

The installation has attracted visitors from around the world seeking to understand how V2G works in commercial practice. The continuous operation since 2016, now approaching a decade, demonstrates that the technology is robust enough for real world commercial application. Vehicles have remained operational and available for their primary purpose of transportation while simultaneously providing grid services.

Part Two: The Green Imperative, Your Role in Denmark's Energy Transition

Beyond Profit: The Sustainability Case for V2G

Denmark's commitment to climate action is among the world's most ambitious. The country has pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 70% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels and achieve climate neutrality by 2045, recently advanced from an earlier 2050 target. For businesses operating in Denmark, participation in this transition is increasingly not optional but expected by customers, employees, and regulators alike.

V2G enables Danish businesses to move beyond simply reducing their own emissions through electrification. By making vehicle batteries available for grid services, companies actively accelerate the integration of renewable energy into the broader energy system.

The challenge of renewable integration is fundamentally one of storage and flexibility. When Denmark's thousands of wind turbines generate more electricity than the country needs, that energy must go somewhere. Without sufficient storage, it gets exported at very low prices, or renewable generators must be curtailed entirely. Every V2G enabled vehicle represents a small but meaningful increment of storage capacity that helps absorb this excess renewable generation.

Research published in ScienceDirect examining V2G potential in Norway and Denmark found that large scale V2G adoption has the potential to significantly affect prices, decreasing price volatility, reducing peak and valley electricity prices, reducing renewable curtailment, and reducing the overall cost of operation in the energy system.

The Scale of the Opportunity

Consider the mathematics of Denmark's electric vehicle fleet. According to the European Alternative Fuels Observatory, Denmark reached 300,000 battery electric vehicles by October 2024, with BEVs achieving 51.5% market share that year. Industry association Mobility Denmark projects the country will reach 1 million electric vehicles on its roads by 2027 and 1.6 million by 2030.

If even a fraction of these vehicles participated in V2G programs, the aggregate storage capacity would be enormous. A fleet of 500,000 vehicles, each with an average of 60 kilowatt hours of usable battery capacity, represents 30 gigawatt hours of potential storage, many times larger than all the stationary battery storage currently installed in Denmark.

Magnus Berg, R&D Portfolio Manager at Vattenfall, puts this in perspective: "Stationary batteries in Sweden currently have a capacity of just over one gigawatt. If all electric vehicles were connected to home chargers, that capacity would be roughly the same today. But both of these volumes are growing. One is already used today as a flexible resource in the electricity market, while the other is hardly used at all so far."

Corporate Sustainability Reporting and ESG Considerations

For Danish businesses concerned with Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) metrics, V2G participation provides concrete, measurable contributions to sustainability goals that can be reported to stakeholders.

Participation in V2G programs can be documented as direct support for renewable energy integration, contribution to grid stability and reliability, reduction of the need for fossil fuel peaker plants, optimization of resource utilization through shared infrastructure, and leadership in the transition to sustainable transportation.

Many Danish companies face increasing pressure from customers, particularly in business to business contexts, to demonstrate environmental credentials. V2G provides a tangible differentiator that goes beyond simply driving electric vehicles.

The reporting framework for Scope 2 emissions, which covers purchased electricity, can reflect V2G participation positively. When your vehicles discharge stored renewable energy to the grid during high demand periods, they displace fossil generation that would otherwise be needed. This displacement effect can be quantified and reported as an indirect contribution to emissions reductions.

Sector Specific Opportunities

Different business sectors present different opportunities and considerations for V2G adoption.

Municipal Utilities and Government Fleets

Like Frederiksberg Forsyning, municipal utilities and government vehicle fleets are natural candidates for V2G. These organizations typically have centralized parking, predictable usage patterns, access to technical expertise, and missions that align with sustainability objectives. The public interest nature of government operations also provides additional rationale beyond pure economics.

Danish municipalities committed to carbon neutrality targets can use V2G as a visible demonstration of their commitment while generating practical value. The combination of owned vehicles, controlled parking facilities, and aligned missions makes implementation relatively straightforward.

Delivery and Logistics Companies

Companies with delivery fleets that operate during daytime hours and park overnight at central depots are excellent V2G candidates. The regular schedules mean vehicles are reliably available for grid services during overnight hours when demand response and frequency regulation needs often arise.

The economics can be particularly favorable because delivery vehicles typically have larger batteries than passenger cars to accommodate heavy loads and extended routes. Larger batteries mean more capacity available for V2G services and thus higher potential revenue.

Corporate Pool Fleets

Companies that maintain pools of vehicles for employee use present interesting V2G opportunities. These vehicles often have lower utilization rates than dedicated delivery or service vehicles, meaning they spend more time connected to chargers and available for grid services.

The challenge with pool fleets is less predictable usage patterns. Sophisticated V2G systems can learn from historical patterns to predict availability and optimize participation accordingly, but the uncertainty reduces the capacity that can be reliably committed to grid services.

Service and Technical Fleets

Companies with service technicians or field personnel who use company vehicles present mixed opportunities. The vehicles may park overnight at employee homes rather than central facilities, complicating the infrastructure requirements. However, where vehicles do return to central depots, the V2G potential is significant.

Retail and Hospitality

Businesses with customer parking facilities might consider offering V2G enabled charging as a service, but this introduces complexity around vehicle access and owner permissions that goes beyond fleet V2G applications.

Manufacturing and Industrial Operations

Manufacturing facilities with significant electricity demand and company vehicle fleets can combine V2G with demand management strategies. Vehicle batteries can help smooth the facility's load profile, reducing demand charges while also participating in grid services during off hours.

Part Three: Making It Work, Practical Implementation for Danish Businesses

Assessing Your Fleet's V2G Potential

Not every electric vehicle fleet is equally suited for V2G, and understanding the key factors helps determine whether and how to proceed.

Vehicle Usage Patterns

The fundamental requirement for V2G is that vehicles spend significant time connected to chargers. Fleets that return to a central depot overnight are ideal candidates. Service vehicles, utility fleets, pool vehicles, and delivery vehicles with defined routes and predictable schedules typically work well. Sales forces or executives with vehicles that may be parked at various locations, or field service teams that might need their vehicles at unpredictable times, present more challenges.

Research indicates that most vehicles are in use about 2 to 3 hours per day. If your fleet fits this pattern, with vehicles available at a central location for 12 or more hours daily, the V2G potential is substantial.

Vehicle Compatibility

Not all electric vehicles support bidirectional charging. However, the list of compatible vehicles is expanding rapidly. According to The Mobility House, manufacturers with current or announced V2G capable models include Nissan, which pioneered V2G with the Leaf, Volkswagen with the ID.3, ID.4, ID.5, and ID. Buzz models, BMW with the upcoming iX3 and the "Neue Klasse" platform, Volvo with the EX90 and EX30, Polestar with the Polestar 3 and 4, Renault with the R5 and future CMB EV platform vehicles, Hyundai and Kia with the Ioniq 5, Ioniq 6, and EV9, and Mercedes Benz with the forthcoming all electric GLC.

For businesses planning fleet procurement, specifying V2G capability is increasingly viable. The additional cost, if any, is typically justified by the potential revenue and operational benefits.

Infrastructure Requirements

V2G requires bidirectional charging infrastructure, which is more complex and currently more expensive than standard EV chargers. Key components include bidirectional chargers, which typically use DC charging at power levels of 10 to 15 kilowatts for commercial applications, energy management software that optimizes charging and discharging based on grid signals, electricity prices, and vehicle schedules, grid connection upgrades that may be required depending on the scale of the installation, and communication systems for integration with aggregators and grid operators.

The cost of bidirectional chargers has been decreasing as the technology matures, but currently remains higher than unidirectional alternatives. However, the revenue potential and operational benefits typically justify the premium for appropriate applications.

Choosing a Business Model

Several business models have emerged for V2G participation, each with different risk and return profiles.

Full Service Aggregator Model

In this approach, exemplified by the Frederiksberg Forsyning arrangement with Nuvve, a third party aggregator handles all aspects of V2G participation. The aggregator provides the software platform, manages market participation, handles billing and settlement, and often provides some or all of the charging infrastructure.

In exchange, the aggregator takes a share of revenues, which may be substantial, or provides benefits in kind such as free electricity. This model minimizes complexity for the fleet operator but also limits potential returns.

Revenue Sharing Model

Many aggregators offer arrangements where the fleet owner receives a percentage of V2G revenues, with the aggregator taking a fee for its services. This model provides more upside potential while still outsourcing the complexity of market participation.

Self Operated Model

Larger fleet operators with energy management capabilities may choose to operate their own V2G programs, directly participating in ancillary services markets through Energinet qualification. This approach requires significant expertise and investment but captures the full revenue potential.

Implementation Steps

For Danish businesses ready to explore V2G, a structured approach increases the likelihood of success.

Phase 1: Assessment and Planning

Begin by analyzing your fleet's usage patterns, documenting typical daily schedules, parking durations, and energy consumption. Inventory your current vehicles to identify any that already have V2G capability or are scheduled for replacement with potentially V2G capable models. Assess your electrical infrastructure, including grid connection capacity, available space for charging equipment, and any potential upgrades needed. Finally, develop a preliminary business case using conservative revenue assumptions.

Phase 2: Partner Selection

Research aggregators operating in the Danish market. Nuvve has the longest track record, but other providers are entering the market. Evaluate partners based on their experience with Energinet qualification, their revenue sharing terms, the technology platforms they use, and their track record with similar fleet customers. Request references and, if possible, speak with current customers about their experience.

Phase 3: Pilot Implementation

Rather than committing your entire fleet immediately, start with a pilot installation. This might involve 5 to 10 vehicles, sufficient to validate the technology and business case while limiting risk. Use the pilot to understand actual revenue generation in your specific circumstances, identify any operational challenges, train staff on the new systems, and refine your approach before scaling.

Phase 4: Scaling

Based on pilot results, develop a plan to expand V2G across your fleet. This may involve phased infrastructure deployment, coordinated with vehicle replacement cycles to ensure new vehicles have V2G capability, and potentially renegotiated terms with your aggregator partner based on demonstrated scale.

Addressing Common Concerns

Battery Degradation

The most frequently raised concern about V2G is its impact on battery longevity. This concern, while understandable, is increasingly addressed by research and operational experience.

Modern lithium ion batteries degrade primarily based on three factors: the number of deep charge cycles, exposure to extreme temperatures, and prolonged storage at very high or very low charge states. V2G operations typically involve shallow cycling, moving perhaps 20 to 30% of battery capacity rather than full charge and discharge cycles. This shallow cycling has minimal impact on battery longevity.

As go e notes: "A discharge rate of 3 kilowatts, which is assumed to be the case for bidirectional charging, is not likely to have any impact on the battery. AC home charging, in general, is not harmful, as it is done at low power. And V2G is essentially just more of the same."

Vehicle manufacturers are also taking precautions. Volkswagen, for example, restricts some of its electric models to a minimum battery charge of 20% during DC bidirectional charging, ensuring vehicles are always ready for unexpected trips while also protecting battery health.

Vehicle Availability

Businesses naturally worry about whether their vehicles will be sufficiently charged when needed. Effective V2G systems address this through user definable minimum charge levels, scheduled departure times that ensure vehicles are fully charged when needed, and override capabilities for unexpected requirements.

The Frederiksberg Forsyning experience demonstrates that these concerns are manageable. After years of operation, the utility reports that V2G has not created operational problems for their vehicle availability.

Complexity and Distraction

For businesses whose core competence is not energy management, the complexity of V2G markets can seem daunting. This is precisely why aggregator models exist. By partnering with specialists, fleet operators can capture V2G value without diverting management attention from core business activities.

Part Four: The Regulatory and Market Landscape

Energinet and Grid Code Requirements

The Danish transmission system operator, Energinet, establishes the technical requirements for participation in grid services markets. Understanding these requirements is essential for businesses planning significant V2G investments.

Energinet has recently updated its technical grid connection requirements for energy storage, known as TF331, specifically to accommodate the expected growth in V2G chargers. Key aspects of these requirements include standardized communication using the IEC 61850 protocol, which simplifies integration and reduces costs compared to earlier proprietary approaches, symmetric requirements for both consumption and production modes, ensuring V2G systems can reliably both charge and discharge, and different requirement tiers based on capacity, with simplified requirements for smaller installations below 125 kilowatts.

For most business fleet applications, direct registration with Energinet is not necessary. Aggregators handle the qualification process and technical compliance, allowing fleet operators to participate through the aggregator's qualified platform.

Market Structure and Revenue Mechanisms

The Danish electricity market operates through several mechanisms relevant to V2G participants.

Day Ahead Market

This is where most electricity is traded, with prices set the day before delivery for each hour. The price volatility in this market creates arbitrage opportunities for V2G.

Intraday Market

For adjustments closer to real time, the intraday market allows trading up to delivery time. V2G systems can optimize positions as conditions change.

Ancillary Services Markets

Energinet procures various grid services through competitive markets. The most relevant for V2G include Frequency Containment Reserves (FCR), the fastest responding reserves for primary frequency control, Frequency Restoration Reserves (FRR), reserves for secondary frequency control, and Manual Frequency Restoration Reserves (mFRR), tertiary reserves activated manually.

V2G systems, operating through qualified aggregators, can participate in these markets, receiving capacity payments for availability and energy payments when actually activated.

Policy Support and Incentives

Denmark's energy policy framework generally supports V2G development, though direct incentives specifically for V2G are limited.

The broader support for electric vehicle adoption, including favorable registration tax treatment through 2025 and gradual increases through 2035, supports fleet electrification that is a prerequisite for V2G.

Time of use electricity tariffs, which are increasingly available from Danish suppliers, create direct incentives for smart charging and, by extension, V2G optimization.

The Danish Utility Regulator (DUR) has indicated ongoing assessment of V2G's potential to reduce costs for users and the system and facilitate increased use of renewable energy, suggesting continued policy attention to the technology.

Part Five: Looking Ahead, The Future of V2G in Denmark

Short Term Outlook: 2025 to 2028

The immediate future for V2G in Denmark is characterized by rapid growth from a small base, driven by several converging factors.

Vehicle Availability

The number of V2G capable vehicles available in Denmark is expanding rapidly. Volkswagen's ID family vehicles with V2G capability are already on the market. BMW's commercial V2G offering, developed in partnership with E.ON, launches with the iX3 in spring 2026. Mercedes Benz has announced bidirectional charging for 2026 with the new all electric GLC. Volvo's EX90 and EX30 are or will be available with bidirectional capability.

By 2028, most mainstream EV manufacturers will offer V2G capable models, making the technology accessible to a broad range of fleet applications.

Infrastructure Buildout

Bidirectional charger availability and cost are improving. Major equipment manufacturers are entering the market, and standardization around the ISO 15118 protocol is enabling greater interoperability. The cost premium for bidirectional capability compared to standard DC charging is declining.

Aggregator Market Development

Competition among V2G aggregators is intensifying. Nuvve, with its established Danish presence, faces competition from new entrants including established energy companies expanding into the V2G space. This competition should improve terms for fleet operators.

Demonstration and Validation

Several significant pilot projects are underway or planned. The Vattenfall partnership with Energy Bank includes a project over the next two years involving 200 bidirectional chargers and at least as many electric Volkswagens, substantially larger than previous Danish pilots. Results from these projects will provide validated data on revenue potential and operational requirements.

In the short term, businesses that move early will benefit from learning curve advantages and potentially more favorable aggregator terms as operators seek to build scale.

Medium Term Outlook: 2028 to 2035

The medium term holds potential for V2G to move from innovative niche to mainstream fleet management practice.

Regulatory Evolution

European grid codes are being updated to better accommodate V2G, creating a more harmonized regulatory environment across borders. The updated Requirements for Generators Network Code (RfG 2.0) explicitly addresses V2G capable vehicles, regardless of whether the inverter is onboard or external.

Danish policy is likely to evolve to more explicitly support V2G, potentially through direct incentives, streamlined permitting, or requirements for new installations to be "V2G ready."

Market Maturation

As more vehicles and chargers participate in V2G markets, the economic dynamics will shift. Research indicates that large scale V2G adoption leads to diminishing returns for individual participants as the additional capacity reduces price volatility. However, the societal benefits increase as the technology scales.

This suggests that early adopters will capture the highest per vehicle returns, while later adopters will still benefit but perhaps at more modest levels. The timing incentive clearly favors action sooner rather than later.

Technology Advancement

Vehicle battery capacities continue to grow, providing more storage per vehicle. Charging and discharging speeds are increasing, enabling faster response to grid signals. Software and artificial intelligence optimization is improving, maximizing revenue from complex market participation.

Fleet Electrification Completion

By 2035, EU regulations require 100% of new passenger vehicle sales to be zero emission. Denmark is tracking ahead of this requirement, with current projections suggesting the transition will be largely complete well before the mandate. This creates a massive installed base of potential V2G participants.

Long Term Vision: The Dream Scenario

Looking beyond 2035, what might an optimized V2G ecosystem look like for Danish businesses?

Seamless Integration

In the ideal future, V2G becomes invisible to fleet operators. Vehicles automatically participate in grid services whenever parked and connected. Revenue flows seamlessly to the fleet owner's account. Vehicles are always sufficiently charged for operational needs, with the system intelligently managing the balance between V2G participation and mobility requirements.

Universal Capability

Every new electric vehicle comes V2G ready as standard. Every workplace charging installation is bidirectional. The incremental cost is negligible because the technology is mass produced at scale.

Substantial Revenue

Fleet operators routinely see their V2G revenue cover a significant portion of vehicle operating costs. For some operations with favorable usage patterns, vehicles may become net revenue generators rather than cost centers.

Grid Transformation

Denmark's entire vehicle fleet functions as a massive, distributed battery supporting the grid. Renewable curtailment is rare because surplus generation is absorbed into vehicle batteries. Fossil fuel peaker plants are largely eliminated because vehicle batteries provide the flexibility the grid needs. Electricity prices stabilize as the massive buffer capacity smooths supply and demand imbalances.

Energy Security

Danish businesses operate with unprecedented energy resilience. Power outages become inconveniences rather than crises, as on site vehicle batteries provide seamless backup power. Companies with critical operations can maintain function for extended periods without grid connection.

This vision is ambitious but not unrealistic. The technology exists today; the question is how quickly scale and policy support can bring it to fruition.

Part Six: Getting Started, A Roadmap for Danish Business Decision Makers

Immediate Actions

For Danish business owners and decision makers interested in exploring V2G, several steps can be taken immediately.

Evaluate Your Current Position

Conduct an honest assessment of your fleet's V2G readiness. How many vehicles do you operate? What are their typical daily schedules? Do any current vehicles have bidirectional capability? What is your charging infrastructure situation? Are you planning fleet procurement decisions in the near term?

Build Internal Knowledge

Familiarize yourself and key team members with V2G concepts and market dynamics. Resources such as the Energinet website, the Parker Project publications, and industry reports provide valuable background.

Engage Potential Partners

Reach out to V2G aggregators operating in the Danish market to understand their offerings, terms, and requirements. Initial conversations are typically without obligation and can provide valuable insight into what participation would involve for your specific situation.

Consider Upcoming Procurement

If you have vehicle purchases or lease renewals approaching, explicitly consider V2G capability in your specifications. Even if you are not ready to implement V2G immediately, having capable vehicles positions you to participate when ready.

Building the Business Case

For organizations requiring formal justification for V2G investment, consider structuring the business case around multiple value streams.

Direct Revenue

Use conservative assumptions based on published revenue figures from Danish operations. The $400 to $600 per kilowatt year range from Nuvve's reported experience provides a reasonable baseline, though your specific results may vary based on vehicle availability, battery capacity, and market conditions.

To illustrate with a concrete example: consider a company operating 15 electric vans for service operations. Each van has a 60 kilowatt hour battery and can provide approximately 10 kilowatts of bidirectional charging capacity. If vehicles are available for V2G services for 14 hours daily on average, and if revenue achieves the middle of the reported range at $500 per kilowatt year, annual revenue would be approximately $75,000 for the fleet.

This figure must be balanced against costs including infrastructure investment (bidirectional chargers are currently more expensive than standard chargers), ongoing software and aggregator fees, any incremental maintenance, and the opportunity cost of vehicle capacity committed to V2G.

Cost Avoidance

Factor in potential electricity cost savings from optimized charging, avoiding peak rate periods, and capturing negative price opportunities. Danish businesses on dynamic tariffs can save 20% or more through smart charging alone.

The Frederiksberg Forsyning model demonstrates an alternative approach where the fleet operator receives free electricity rather than direct revenue. For the utility, this represents avoided costs that would otherwise be significant operating expenses. Similar arrangements might suit other organizations that prefer simplicity over maximum revenue extraction.

Resilience Value

Quantify the value of backup power capability if relevant to your operations. For businesses with critical systems, the insurance value of distributed battery storage may be substantial.

Consider the fully loaded cost of an hour of downtime for your operations. Include not just lost revenue but also employee costs during nonproductive time, potential penalties for missed deadlines or service level agreements, and reputational effects. If your vehicle fleet can provide backup power sufficient to maintain critical operations during grid outages, the avoided losses from even one prevented outage may exceed several years of V2G investment costs.

Sustainability and Reputation

While harder to quantify, the reputational value of V2G participation deserves consideration. For businesses selling to environmentally conscious customers or competing for talent that values sustainability, V2G demonstrates concrete climate commitment.

Some organizations find that the ability to make specific, quantified claims about grid support and renewable integration creates marketing value beyond the direct economic benefits. "Our vehicle fleet supported Denmark's electricity grid with X megawatt hours of balancing services last year" is a more compelling sustainability claim than simply stating that you operate electric vehicles.

Future Optionality

Even if current economics are marginal for your situation, investing in V2G capability preserves optionality as the market develops. Costs to retrofit capability later may exceed incremental costs to include it from the start.

The V2G market is evolving rapidly. Electricity price volatility may increase as renewable penetration grows. New market products and services may emerge that create additional revenue opportunities. Regulatory changes may provide direct incentives for V2G participation. Having capable vehicles and infrastructure in place positions you to capture these opportunities as they emerge.

Financial Modeling Considerations

A robust financial model for V2G investment should incorporate several elements.

Capital Costs

Include the incremental cost of V2G capable vehicles compared to standard EVs (which is increasingly negligible as V2G becomes standard on more models), bidirectional charger equipment and installation, electrical infrastructure upgrades if required, and software platform costs.

Operating Costs

Consider aggregator fees (which may be structured as revenue sharing or fixed fees), electricity costs (which may be partially or fully offset by optimization), any incremental maintenance, and administrative overhead for program participation.

Revenue Projections

Model revenue conservatively using historical data from Danish market operations. Consider sensitivity analysis for different market scenarios. Account for the possibility that revenues may decrease as V2G adoption scales and market saturation effects emerge.

Risk Factors

Include scenarios for technology risk (equipment failures or obsolescence), market risk (changes in electricity prices or ancillary services markets), regulatory risk (changes in market rules or incentive structures), and operational risk (vehicle unavailability or scheduling conflicts).

Time Horizon

V2G investments typically make sense over medium to long time horizons. Charger equipment may have 10 to 15 year useful lives. Vehicle replacement cycles typically run 4 to 8 years for commercial fleets. Model cash flows over appropriate periods and calculate net present value using your organization's cost of capital.

Managing Implementation Risks

Prudent implementation involves acknowledging and managing risks.

Technology Risk

The core V2G technology is proven through years of Danish operation. However, specific vehicle models, charger equipment, or software platforms may have undiscovered issues. Mitigate this risk through phased implementation, starting with pilots before full deployment, and through partner selection that emphasizes track record.

Market Risk

V2G revenues depend on electricity market conditions. If price volatility decreases significantly, perhaps because V2G becomes so widespread that it stabilizes prices, returns may decline. Mitigate this risk by not counting on V2G revenue for essential operations and by maintaining flexibility to adjust participation levels.

Regulatory Risk

Policy changes could affect V2G economics, either positively through increased support or negatively through changed market rules. The general direction of Danish and EU policy supports V2G, but specific implementation details may evolve. Maintain awareness of policy developments and engage with industry associations that participate in policy discussions.

Operational Risk

V2G adds complexity to fleet management. Vehicles that are deeply discharged when unexpectedly needed, charger equipment failures, or software glitches could create operational disruptions. Mitigate through conservative operating parameters, redundant systems where critical, and clear override procedures.

Conclusion: Seizing the V2G Opportunity

The convergence of Denmark's world leading renewable energy deployment, ambitious climate targets, rapidly electrifying vehicle fleet, and mature V2G operational experience creates a unique opportunity for Danish businesses.

Vehicle to Grid technology transforms electric vehicle fleets from simple transportation assets into active participants in the energy system. The economic benefits, while still developing, are already sufficient to make V2G participation attractive for many fleet applications. The environmental benefits align perfectly with Denmark's national goals and corporate sustainability imperatives. The technical challenges are well understood and increasingly addressed through maturing technology and experienced service providers.

The question for Danish business decision makers is no longer whether V2G will become mainstream, but rather how quickly to engage with this transition. Early movers will benefit from learning curve advantages, potentially more favorable partnership terms, and the satisfaction of contributing meaningfully to Denmark's green transition.

As Klas Boman, whose Energy Bank project with Vattenfall is demonstrating V2G potential, puts it: "With Vehicle to Grid, everyone can be a winner. That is what makes it so magical."

The parking lot full of electric vehicles at your Danish business is more than a transportation resource. It is a potential power plant, a revenue generator, a grid stabilizer, and a statement of environmental commitment. The technology to unlock this potential exists today. The market structures are in place. The partners are available.

The opportunity awaits those ready to seize it.

Key Resources for Danish Businesses

Government and Regulatory Bodies , Energinet, Danish transmission system operator , Danish Energy Agency, energy policy and regulation , Danish Utility Regulator (DUR), market oversight

Industry Associations , Mobility Denmark, automotive industry association , Green Power Denmark, renewable energy industry association

Technology Providers and Aggregators , Nuvve, V2G technology and aggregation , The Mobility House, charging and energy management solutions

Research and Information , Parker Project, Danish V2G research initiative , DTU, Technical University of Denmark, V2G research , State of Green, Danish green transition information

This article was prepared for Danish business owners and decision makers interested in Vehicle to Grid technology. The information provided is for general guidance and does not constitute investment, financial, or legal advice. Businesses should conduct their own due diligence and consult appropriate professionals before making decisions about V2G participation.